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Link and Medium Access Protocols, IEEE 802 standards, Performance Issues Link Protocol A link protocol, also known as a data link protocol or link layer protocol, operates on the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.  Its primary functions include framing, error detection and correction, flow control and addressing.  Link protocols are responsible for packaging higher-level data into frames that can be transmitted over a physical medium. Common examples of link protocols include Ethernet  -  Ethernet एक LAN technology है जिससे आप computers को आपस में connect कर सकते है और एक Local Area Network बना सकते है। Ethernet का standard नाम IEEE 802.3 है। HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) -   Network Points या Nodes  के बीच डेटा संचारित करने के लिए Data Link Layer के Communication Protocols का एक समूह है। चूंकि HDLC एक Data Link Protocol है इसलिए Data Frame में Organized होता है। HDLC Protocol को ISO द्वारा Point to Point Data Links पर इस्तेमाल करने के ल...

OSI MODEL OSI stands for Open System Interconnection . It is a reference model that describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications. The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer. The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the...

LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS Layering , in the context of networking and communication systems, refers to the organization of complex systems into multiple, hierarchical layers, each with specific functions and responsibilities. This concept is essential for modular design and interoperability. The most common layered model in networking is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which has seven layers:  PROTOCOLS Protocols are a set of rules and conventions that determine how data is exchanged and communicated between devices or systems.  They provide a standardized way for various entities to understand and interact with each other. Protocols operate at specific layers of the network stack, ensuring that each layer's functionality is well-defined and can operate independently of the layers above and below. INTERNET PROTOCOLS HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) -Used for transmitting web pages and other resources over the World Wide Web. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Sec...

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM DBMS 1. DBMS फ़ाइल के रूप में डेटा को सेव करता है। 2. एक बार मे केवल एक ही डेटा एलिमेंट्स को एक्सेस किया जाता है। 3. एक डेटा एलिमेंट का दूसरे डेटा एलिमेंट से कोई सम्बन्ध नही होता है। 4. Normalization नहीं होता है। 5. DBMS डिस्ट्रिब्यूटेड डेटा को सपोर्ट नहीं करता है। 6. यह डेटा को navigational या hierarchical फॉर्म में सेव करता है। 7. यह छोटे डेटा को हैंडल करने के लिए यूज़ किया जाता है।  8. Data Redundancy (अनावश्यक) इसमे एक आम बात है।  9. यह छोटे आर्गेनाइजेशन के में यूज़ होता है।  10. Single User को सपोर्ट करता है।  11. बड़े डेटा को Fetch करने में बहुत समय लगता है। 12. डेटा manipulation के लिए low सिक्योरिटी लेवल होता है। 13. Low software और hardware की आवश्यकता होती है। 14. Examples: XML, Microsoft Access, etc. RDBMS 1. RDBMS डाटा को टेबल में सेव करता है। 2. Multiple data elements can be एक साथ कई डेटा एलीमेंट को एक्सेस किया जा सकता है। 3. इसमे डेटा टेबल के फॉर्म में सेव होतें हैं जो कि एक दूसरे से related होतें हैं। 4. Normalization होता...

NETWORKING ARCHITECTURE A Computer Network is interconnection between two or more computers. UNIT - 1 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE THESE ARE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS IN NETWORKING ARCHITECTURE ... CHAPTER-1  LAYERING & PROTOCOLS CHAPTER-2  OSI MODEL & INTERNET ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER-3 NETWORK TOPOLOGY CHAPTER-4 LINK & MEDIUM ACCESS PROTOCOLS, IEEE 802 STANDARDS,  PERFORMANCE ISSUES CHAPTER-5 NETWORK ADAPTORS CIRCUIT CHAPTER-6 SWITCHING - PACKET SWITCHING CHAPTER-7 INTERNETWORKING - BRIDGES - INTERNET PROTOCOL - ADDRESSING - ROUTING PROTOCOLS CHAPTER-8 UDP - TCP - CONGESTION CONTROL - PRESENTATION ASPECTS UNIT-2 APPLICATIONS & NETWORK MANAGEMENT UPDATING SOON...

D IAL TEST INDICATOR What is Dial Test Indicator? Dial indicators are used primarily for measuring gauges and fixtures Alternatively, the dial test indicator is most often used for surface plate layout work or indicating measurements during machine setup. डायल टेस्ट इंडिकेटर क्या है? वास्तव में एक तुलनात्मक अध्ययन करने वाला यन्त्र है, इसलिए इसे एक Measuring Instrument न कहकर तुलना करने वाला यन्त्र (Comparing Instrument) कह सकते हैं। Image of Dial Test Indicator with parts name 1. Cap  2. Outer frame  3. Short pointer  4. Scale mark plate  5. Gauge head  6. Spindle  7. Stem 8. Graduation Plate  9. Long Pointer 10. Limiter  Principal of dial test indicator Relies on the reciprocating motion of a plunger or lever in response to variations in the distance being measured. डायल टेस्ट इंडिकेटर का सिद्धांत मापी जा रही दूरी में भिन्नता के मान में प्लंजर या लीवर की पारस्परिक गति पर निर्भर करता हैl  Types of Dial Test Indicator Two main type of Dial T...

Object Oriented Programming (OOP Concept) WHY WE STUDY OOP? OOP is basically a concept of Object & Class. Object Oriented Programming has several advantages:- 1. OOP is faster and easier to execute. 2. OOP provides a clear structure for the programs. 3. OOP helps to keep the code easier to maintain, modify and debug. 4. OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development time. CLASS A class describes the contents of the objects that belong to it. OBJECT An object is an element of a class; objects have the behaviours of their class. PILLERS There are 4  main  pillars of OOP (Object Oriented Programming). 1. INHERITENCE 2. POLYMORPHISM 3. ABSTRACTION 4. ENCAPSULATION INHERITENCE In Inheritance, there is a Parent Class in which we use its properties and methods to its Child Class. POLYMORPHISM Poly = multiple & morph = change In Polymorphism, an object can be changed from one form to another.  A real-life example of ...

CITS EXAM 2024 IMPORTANT TERMENOLOGY POP3 POP3 stands for POST OFFICE PROTOCOL VERSION 3. IMAP IMAP stands for INTERNET MESSAGING ACCESS PROTOCOL. SMTP SMTP stands for SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL. MIME MIME stands for MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSIONS. FTP FTP stands for FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL. HTTPS HTTPS stands for HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL SECURE. SSL SSL is stands for SECURE SOCKETS LAYER. ARP ARP stands for ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL. RARP RARP stands for REVERSE ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL. DNS DNS stands for DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM. TCP TCP stands for TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL. UDP UDP stands for USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL. ICMP ICMP stands for INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL. IGMP IGMP stands for INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL. ALL ABOVE TERMS RECOMMENDED BY RAJIV SIR (GUEST FACULTY 2023-2024), NSTI KANPUR