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All SQL SYNTAX OF DATABASES 1. HOW TO CREAE DATABASE? SYNTAX- create database database_name; Example: mysql> CREATE DATABASE TOTALSACH; 2. HOW TO SHOW DATABASE LIST? SYNTAX: show databases; Example: mysql> SHOW DATABASES; 3. HOW TO USE DATABASE? SYNTAX- use database_name; Example: mysql> USE TOTALSACH; 4. HOW TO CREAE TABLE IN A DATABASE? SYNTAX- create table table_name (column1 datatype(), column2 datatype(), colunm3 datatype(), column4 datatype()); Example: mysql> CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (SRNO INT, NAME VARCHAR(20), CONTACT INT, SALARY VARCHAR(10)); 4. HOW TO RENAME TABLE IN A DATABASE? SYNTAX- alter table old_table_name                       rename to new_table_name; Example: mysql> alter table studentsss                 rename to student; 5. HOW TO INSERT VALUES IN TABLE? SYNTAX- insert into table_name values(values1, "value2", value3, "value4"); Example: m...

UDP /TCP, Congestion Control, Presentation Aspects User Datagram Protocol (UDP) It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission. It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error. User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to  the sender that user datagram has been damaged. UDP consists of the following fields: 1. Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has created the message. 2. Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program that receives the message. 3. Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes. 4. Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) It provides a full transport layer services to applications. It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active  ...

Internetworking, bridges, Internet protocol, Addressing, Routing Protocol Internetworking is the practice of interconnecting multiple computer networks, such that any pair of hosts in the connected networks can exchange messages irrespective of their hardware-level networking technology. The resulting system of interconnected networks are called an internetwork, or simply an internet.  There are 3 main units of Internetworking... 1. Extranet 2. Intranet 3. Internet 1. Extranet An Extranet is a private network that extends some of an organization's internal network resources and services to external users or organizations, typically on the internet.  It's essentially a controlled and secure extension of an organization's Intranet (internal network) to include specific external parties such as customers, suppliers, business partners, or other authorized users. Key characteristics of an Extranet include: 1. Selective Access: Extranets are designed to provide access only to au...

NETWORK ADAPTERS, CIRCUIT & PACKET SWITCHING Network adaptors A network adapter, also known as a network interface card (NIC) or network interface controller, is a hardware component that allows computers, servers or other devices to connect to a network.  It provides the required physical interface for the device to transmit and receive data over a network.  Network adapters typically have a unique identifier called a MAC (Media Access Control) address, which is used to distinguish devices on a network.  They can be integrated into a computer's motherboard or added as an expansion card. Purpose of Network adaptors Network adapters are essential for connecting devices to a network, whether it's a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), or the internet.  They are used in computers, servers, routers, switches, and various other networked devices. Types Of Network Adapter 1. Ethernet NIC 2. Wireless NIC 3. Fibre Optic NIC Functions of Network Adapt...

Link and Medium Access Protocols, IEEE 802 standards, Performance Issues Link Protocol A link protocol, also known as a data link protocol or link layer protocol, operates on the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.  Its primary functions include framing, error detection and correction, flow control and addressing.  Link protocols are responsible for packaging higher-level data into frames that can be transmitted over a physical medium. Common examples of link protocols include Ethernet  -  Ethernet एक LAN technology है जिससे आप computers को आपस में connect कर सकते है और एक Local Area Network बना सकते है। Ethernet का standard नाम IEEE 802.3 है। HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) -   Network Points या Nodes  के बीच डेटा संचारित करने के लिए Data Link Layer के Communication Protocols का एक समूह है। चूंकि HDLC एक Data Link Protocol है इसलिए Data Frame में Organized होता है। HDLC Protocol को ISO द्वारा Point to Point Data Links पर इस्तेमाल करने के ल...

OSI MODEL OSI stands for Open System Interconnection . It is a reference model that describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications. The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer. The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the...

LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS Layering , in the context of networking and communication systems, refers to the organization of complex systems into multiple, hierarchical layers, each with specific functions and responsibilities. This concept is essential for modular design and interoperability. The most common layered model in networking is the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which has seven layers:  PROTOCOLS Protocols are a set of rules and conventions that determine how data is exchanged and communicated between devices or systems.  They provide a standardized way for various entities to understand and interact with each other. Protocols operate at specific layers of the network stack, ensuring that each layer's functionality is well-defined and can operate independently of the layers above and below. INTERNET PROTOCOLS HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) -Used for transmitting web pages and other resources over the World Wide Web. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Sec...

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM DBMS 1. DBMS फ़ाइल के रूप में डेटा को सेव करता है। 2. एक बार मे केवल एक ही डेटा एलिमेंट्स को एक्सेस किया जाता है। 3. एक डेटा एलिमेंट का दूसरे डेटा एलिमेंट से कोई सम्बन्ध नही होता है। 4. Normalization नहीं होता है। 5. DBMS डिस्ट्रिब्यूटेड डेटा को सपोर्ट नहीं करता है। 6. यह डेटा को navigational या hierarchical फॉर्म में सेव करता है। 7. यह छोटे डेटा को हैंडल करने के लिए यूज़ किया जाता है।  8. Data Redundancy (अनावश्यक) इसमे एक आम बात है।  9. यह छोटे आर्गेनाइजेशन के में यूज़ होता है।  10. Single User को सपोर्ट करता है।  11. बड़े डेटा को Fetch करने में बहुत समय लगता है। 12. डेटा manipulation के लिए low सिक्योरिटी लेवल होता है। 13. Low software और hardware की आवश्यकता होती है। 14. Examples: XML, Microsoft Access, etc. RDBMS 1. RDBMS डाटा को टेबल में सेव करता है। 2. Multiple data elements can be एक साथ कई डेटा एलीमेंट को एक्सेस किया जा सकता है। 3. इसमे डेटा टेबल के फॉर्म में सेव होतें हैं जो कि एक दूसरे से related होतें हैं। 4. Normalization होता...