Psychology of Learning
Definition: -
Psychology may be defined as the scientific study of the human behavior and mental process. The word psychology is derived from the Greek words' ‘psyche’ means soul; ‘logos’ means science.
Thus, psychology is the branch of scientific study of human mind and how it influences behavior consciously and unconsciously.
Educational psychology is nothing but one of the branches of applied psychology. In other words, educational psychology is a study of the experiences and behavior of the learner in relation to educational and training environment.
From time-to-time psychologists have tried to define educational psychology in their own ways. Some of these definitions are given below: -
• Skinner defines it as: “Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning.”
• Crow and crow put it as: “Educational psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age.”
Nature of Educational Psychology
We can summarize the nature of educational psychology in the following way: -
• Educational psychology is an applied branch of the subject of psychology. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the learners.
• While psychology deals with the behaviour of all individuals in all walks of life, educational psychology limits its dealing with the behaviour of the learner/ trainee in relation to educational and training environment.
• It does not concern with ‘what’ and ‘why’ of education, it gives the necessary knowledge and skill (technical guidance) for giving education to the learners in a satisfactory way.
• It is not a normative science as it is not concerned with the values of education and does not concern itself with “what ought to be”. It is an applied positive science.
• Educational psychology is not a perfect science. It has its own drawbacks. The human (as well as animal) behaviour is unpredictable. It is more variable and less reliable. Therefore, educational psychology, the applied behavioural science, cannot claim objectively, exactness and validity as claimed by natural sciences or even applied sciences like medicine and engineering etc.
• It employs scientific method and adopts scientific approach to study the behavior of an individual in educational and training environment. Moreover, the controlling of the factors and prediction of the behavior on generalized results gives educational psychology a complete scientific base. Therefore, it is proper to call its nature as scientific.
Scope of Educational Psychology
Educational psychology deals with the behavior of the learner in educational situations (only). Therefore, it becomes imperative that educational psychology should limit itself within the four walls of the teaching-learning process and educational and training environment.
Let us judge what are the key factors in an educational process and list them one by one.
a. The learner (trainee)
b. The learning experiences
c. The learning process
d. Learning situations or environment
e. The teacher/trainer
The subject matter of educational psychology, if it is at all necessary to draw its boundaries, revolves round these five pivots mentioned above.
The learner
If we take first pivot, the learner we can find that educational psychology has the subject knitted around the learner. What this section of its subject matter it acquaints us with the need of knowing the learner and deals with the techniques of knowing him well.
The innate abilities and capacities of the individual, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well unconscious behavior of the learner, the characteristics of growth and development at each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.
The learning experiences
Once the task of educational philosophy to decide the aims and objectives of a piece of instruction at a particular stage is finished, the need of educational psychology is felt. At this juncture, educational psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction. In this area, educational psychology has the subject matter which deals with the knowledge and principles of psychology which facilitates the selection of the desirable learning experiences for the learner.
The learning process
Around this pivot educational psychology deals with the nature of learning and how it takes place and contains the topics such as laws, principles and theories of learning; recalling and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning process, problem solving, transfer of training, ways and means of effective learning etc.
Learning situations or environment
Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics techniques and aids which facilitate learning, evaluation techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. which help in the smooth functioning of the teaching- learning process come under the jurisdiction of this pivot.
The teacher/trainer
Education psychology emphasizes the need of knowing the self for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. It discusses his conflicts, motivation, anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching/training etc so as to inspire for becoming a successful teacher/trainer.
Advantages for a teacher/trainer
The inclusion of educational psychology in a professional pre-preparation programmes for the teachers has a very wide utility. It helps them to grow properly in their profession.
To know the learner
Educational psychology equips the teacher/trainer for understanding the learner in the following different ways: -
• His interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities etc.
• The stage of development linked with his social, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs.
• His level of aspiration
• His conscious and unconscious behavior
• His motivational behavior
• The aspect of his group behavior
• His conflicts, desires and other aspects of his mental health.
To select and organise the subject-matter or learning experiences. After knowing the learner, when the stage is ready for educating the learner, the following questions come in the way: -
What type of learning experiences or learning materials are to be provided?
How should we organise or grade the materials or learning experiences?
To answer these types of questions which along to the area of ‘curriculum construction’ one needs the knowledge of the characteristics of the learner at each stage of his/ her development, the nature and laws of learning etc which come under the domain of educational psychology.
To suggest art and techniques of learning as well as teaching. After deciding about the learner and the learning material the next problem “how to teach” is also solved with the help of educational psychology. It explains the process of learning and suggests the means for effective and enduring learning. It reveals how to maintain interest in the learning process. It also suggests that not a single method or technique is suitable for all kinds of learners in all circumstances. A teacher/trainer should select a proper device or method according to the learning situations, he/she faces.
To arrange learning situations or environment. The study of the impact of the learning environment (including equipment facilities and teaching/training aid material etc.) on the teaching learning process equips the teacher/ trainer for taking care of the appropriate learning situations or environment.
To acquaint him with the mechanism of heredity and environment. The knowledge of the role played by heredity and environment in the process of growth and development of the child, is very essential for the teacher.
Helping in maintaining discipline. Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher/trainer to have a creative type of discipline as it acquaints him with the nature of the learner, his strength and weakness, his interests and aptitudes etc on the one hand and with art and techniques of teaching and learning on the other hand.
Rending guidance services. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher/trainer in rendering guidance services to the learners. He/She is the person who can know the learner better, even more, than their parents. With the knowledge of educational psychology at his command, he/she is in touch with the methods of behavioural assessment and appraisal. He/ she can better diagnose the abilities, interests and aptitudes of his learners and consequently have an idea of the direction and speed of their development. In this way with the help of educational psychology the teacher/ trainer can show the right direction to his learners for their total development.
Helping in evaluation and assessment. After giving learning experiences to the learner, the behavioural changes occured in him are required to be examined and also in the beginning the potentialities are to be known. In educational psychology, as applied behavioural science, evaluation, measurement and appraisal find its place which make the teacher/trainer well equipped in the task of evaluation with proper professional skills.
Solving classroom problems. There are innumerable problems like backwardness, absenteeism, bullying, cheating in the classroom situations which are to be faced by a teacher/trainer. The study of the characteristics of the problem learner, the dynamics of the group, behavioural characteristics and adjustment etc. equip the teacher/trainer to solve the actual class-room problems.
Knowing about himself. Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher/trainer to know about themself. The own behavior pattern personality characteristics, likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety conflicts, adjustment etc. are all revealed to him.
Teachers/trainers needs and problems are too many and have so many aspects. Educational psychology being a science and technology of education helps the teacher/ trainer in all the phases of teaching and learning whether informal or formal, curricular or co-curricular. It does not only equip for the class-room instruction but also for the other duties assigned like construction of time-table organization of co-curricular activities, to seek parental co-operation etc.
In this regard we can see that educational psychology is a subject which is very essential for the proper professional growth of the teachers and that is why it is an indispensable subject in the teacher/trainer training programmes of all stages.
Teaching/Training
“Teaching/Training is an instructional activity of delivering a particular skill or subject or something that someone tells you to do. It is aimed at bringing about meaningful learning through a method that is morally and pedagogically acceptable. It involves a teacher/trainer, a learner, content in the form of knowledge, facts, information and skill to be imparted.
There are fundamentally two ways of understanding teaching/training. The first view is teaching/training as an instructor-centered activity in which knowledge is transmitted from someone who has acquired that knowledge to novice learners.
The second view is teaching/training as a learner-centered activity in which the instructor ensures that learning is made possible for novice learners and supports, guides, and encourages them in their active and independent creation of new knowledge and skills.
Teaching/training skills
Teaching/training is a complex multifaceted activity, often requiring an instructor to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following set of principles can make teaching both more effective and efficient by helping us create the conditions support trainee learning. While implementing these principles it requires a commitment in time and effort, it often saves time and energy later on.
Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about trainees and using that knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching/ training.
When we teach/train, we do not just teach the content, we teach learners the content. A variety of learners characteristics can affect learning. For example, learners cultural and generational backgrounds influence how they see the world; disciplinary backgrounds lead learners to approach problems in different ways; and learners prior knowledge (both accurate and inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning.
Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.
Teaching shall be more effective if learner learning is enhanced when (a) we, as instructors, articulate a clear set of learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect learners to demonstrate by the end of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs, discussions, readings) support these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice; and (c) the assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for learners to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills articulated in the objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can guide further learning.
Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and policies.
Trainer being clear about our expectations and communicating them explicitly helps learners learn more and perform better. Articulating our learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect learners to demonstrate by the end of a course) gives learners a clear target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress along the way.
Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.
Don’t try to do too much in a single course. Too many topics work against learner learning, so it is necessary for us to make decisions – sometimes difficult ones – about what we will and will not include in a course. This involves (a) recognizing the parameters of the course (e.g., class size, learner’s backgrounds and experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence, number of course units), (b) setting our priorities for learner learning, and (c) determining a set of objectives that can be reasonably accomplished.
Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.
As experts, we tend to access and apply knowledge automatically and unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose appropriate strategies) and so we often skip or combine critical steps when we teach. Learners on the other hand, don’t yet have sufficient background and experience to make these leaps and can become confused, draw incorrect conclusions, or fail to develop important skills. They need instructors to break tasks into component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes in detail. Though it is difficult for experts to do this, we need to identify and explicitly communicate to learners the knowledge and skills we take for granted, so that learners can see expert thinking in action and practice applying it themselves.
Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals.
We can take on a variety of roles in our teaching (e.g., synthesizer, moderator, challenger, commentator). These roles should be chosen in service of the learning objectives and in support of the instructional activities.
Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. We need to continually reflect on our teaching and be ready to make changes when appropriate. Knowing what and how to change requires us to examine relevant information on our own teaching effectiveness. We might modify the learning objectives, content, structure, or format of a course, or otherwise adjust our teaching.
Principles of Teaching
They are closely related to expression of principle or rule of conduct. In simple words teaching method are based on two types of principles: General principles and psychological principles.
1. Principle of Motivation: It creates curiosity among learners to learn new things.
2. Principle of Activity (learning by doing): Froebel’s Kindergarten (KG) system is based on this principle. It includes both physical and mental activities. For example, learners are asked to make charts and models.
3. Principle of Interest: By generating genuine interest among the learner’s community, the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process can be increased.
4. Principle of linking with life: Life is a continuous experience, and learning linked with life can be more enduring.
5. Principle of Definite aim: This is important for optimum utilization of teaching resources and making learning more focused.
6. Principle of Recognizing individual differences: Every learner is unique in terms of intelligence, attitude, abilities and potentialities, socio-economic background. The teaching method should be devised in such a manner to make all the learners to avail equal opportunities in life.
7. Principle of Selection: The horizon of knowledge is expanding each day. The teacher should be able to pick contents that can be more relevant and update to the learner’s objectives.
8. Principle of Planning: Every teacher has certain time-bound objectives, and hence, teaching should be systematic to make optimum use of resources within the time limit.
9. Principle of Division: To make learning easier, the subject matter should be divided into units, and there should be links between the units.
10. Principle of Revision: To make learning enduring, the acquired knowledge should be revised immediately and repeatedly.
11. Principle of Certain and Recreation: This Principle is a must to make classroom environment humorous and creative.
12. Principle of Democratic dealing: It entails learners in planning and executing different activities; It helps in developing self-confidence and self-respect among the learners.
Principles of learning & teaching
Learning is a psychological process of acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviours, skills, values or preferences which leads to a change in behaviour of an individual. There are certain basic psychological factors and principles related to learning which every instructor should understand and be able to apply in his presentation. The learning does not take place unless the learner is ready, and instructor is willing to teach. Therefore, this change will be due to certain conditions of learning, like motivation, stimulus, response, etc. All these processes of motivation, stimulation and response are connected with psychological reasoning. This reasoning is known as principles of learning. For making the students to learn better, it is important for an instructor to know the principles of learning, which influence in better learning.
The following are some of the principles of learning that the instructor should know and make use of teaching.
Learning results from stimulation through human senses
Learning is explained as the things, learner does as responses to stimuli. Real learning is the change which takes place in a learner, as a result of his mental and physical responses or reactions to stimuli caused in the mind through neuro muscular activity of the senses. As a result of the contacts with ideas and things a learner responds, which leads to the learning of new knowledge, improvement in certain habits, changes in learner attitudes or points of view.
Hence, it is the instructor’s responsibility to provide the best learning situations and guide learners in acquiring skill in handling tools, equipment, machines and materials etc. When demonstrated a skill, he/she should be explained the purpose and the sequence of operation steps so that the rate of learning is enhanced.
Learning requires activity
“We learn to do by doing” defines that a principle which must be put into practice by every instructor. In order to develop manipulative skills the instructor make the learner/trainee physical work. Such physical work implies for the application of related information. It also keeps the learner active in mentally and physically and which leads to develop the habits of basic to skill development.
Learning is based on past experience
“Learning starts with what the learner knows but not with the teacher know or starts”.
The said expression states that is true in all learning situations. What the learner knows is the foundation for what he intends to know. Suppose an instructor, presenting about the resistance in wires, he compares the flow of electrical current to the resistances and explain by comparing the flow of water from sizes of pipe (diameter of pipe). This similarity interacts with learner and be able to understand quickly. Hence, new learnings are learnt by learners by means of re-collecting or comparison with the past experience, that the learner knows.
Interest is essential to effective learning and makes learners ready to learn
Interest is inner feeling which causes people to direct their attention to do certain thing. Interest leads to attention. Attention with interest makes the learner to concentrate. Concentration with purpose provide feelings. The experiences obtained lead to reach highest point (culminate) in real learning. The instructor should motivate the learners in order to create interest by providing the conditions under which learning is purposeful, quick and effective.
Early success increase chance for effective learning
In the early stages of training program the instructor should see that the learners/trainees work under is direct supervision and guidance, which helps to learner to develop interest in the work what has been allotted to him. It is the responsibility of the instructor that the work what the learner does, should result in success. When there is satisfaction further learning is possible. In case of normal and average learners the achievement such obtained will lead to great pleasure and stimulates or motivates to greater activity.
Knowledge of the purpose, use and application of thing to be taught makes learning more effective
The learner has right to know, the need of the learning. It is the responsibility of the instructor to convince the learner, the purpose of learning in which he is interested.
The instructor should correlate the theoretical informations to the practical applications of the jobs and the learner should learn and be able to explain composite knowledge of related informations which makes him a good craftsman.
Continuous evaluation is essential to effective learning
Self-evaluation of learner’s efforts is essential to progress. The learner must continuously compare his work with some standard accomplished learner if he/she is to improve. It is the instructor to keep goals to the high standards of achievement. The instructor should help the trainees to compare their effort with the known and to recognise quality. Even for critic's evaluation of their performance improves their work.
Recognition and credit provide strong incentive for learning
Trainees/Learners ambition expect credit for their performance of work, when it is done well. Even though well performance may be the responsibility of the learner, awarding credit to their work, which causes for stimuli and greater activity among the trainees.
The most effective learning results when mital learning is followed immediately by application
The learner/trainee forgets very quickly the large part of learning when he/she has not given a chance of applying and not using constantly. The learner should make effort to use of newly learnt information, for remembrance and recall. Subsequent to the demonstration the instructor should provide opportunities to the learners to practice the skill which has been demonstrated, under the very careful supervision of the instructor.
Repetition helps development of skill
More number of repetitions leads to develop habits. The trainees to develop the speed, accuracy. The accuracy must be emphasized in the beginning of training period. The acquisition of speed may be emphasized when trainee achieve accuracy and correct work habits. But for good results and development of skills, both accuracy and speed should develop simultaneously, so that in later the learner/trainee will be able to perform successfully to meet the industry needs, where speed and accuracy is more important for efficiency and profit.
Learners differ in their social and educational back ground, in understanding capacity and hence learner learns at various rate
Trainees/Learners differ as individuals from one another in their mental caliber and emotional behaviour patterns. They differ in expressing and understanding abilities. They learn in various rates. The instructor aim is not to the brightest learners/trainees or for the dullest trainees.
Motivation
Learners will not learn about any matter or thing unless they are motivated or created interest lean to do as desired by the instructor. Motivation in teaching situation is a part of teaching which increases or encourages a desire to learn by the learners. By understanding the learner needs, when a instructor prepares and teaches, that itself a greatest source of motivation for the learners. Then only learners will have a confidence with instructor, gets motivated and learning takes place with interest.
Motivation can be intrinsic and extrinsic in an individual/ learner/trainee. Intrinsic motivation elevates the learner to “self propelled” (self thrust) and leads to effective learning so to reach the desired goals. In case of extrinsic motivation, which is created by instructor/parent providing pleasant learning environment, financial help, recognition or praise.
Sustaining interest for continuous learning
There are two aspect of sustaining interest for continuous learning. One is creating interest in learning and the other is teaching in the manner that maintains interest. Once the learner is motivated the instructor has to consider the following factors to maintain or sustain the interest among the learners.
• Encourage competition in learning activity.
• Give credit to the work well done.
• Show interest in all equally.
• Be impartial in his judgement.
• Reward the deserved learners for their outstanding work.
• Provide proper working conditions.
• Keep the entire class active with appropriate assignments.
Factors affecting learning
It has been found out that the learner's difficulty in learning may be due to many factors within the learner themself. Therefore, it is considered as important to study about the factors affecting learning to solve the problems related to learning and to improve our efforts of teaching and training the learners in developing their competencies.
Psychology reveals that some of the important factors which may affect the learning process are as follows:
Readiness / Preparedness: Readiness / Preparedness are to be mentally ready to learn a skill is called readiness. Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. (Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn) and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
Interest: Interest refers to the feeling of Your activities that you enjoy doing and the subjects that you like to spend time learning about to know or learn about something. Teachers should make the lesson material relevant and applicable to learner's lives in order to build interest.
Intelligence: Intelligence is a natural capacity and ability which helps the individual to understand and solve the problems according to the situation.
Motivation: Role of motivation on learning engage learners in learning when they feel competent to do what is expected of them and perceive stable link between actions and achievements, they value the subject and have a clear sense of purpose they experience positive emotions towards learning activities.
Attitude: Human attitude is constructed on the bases of one's personal thinking and ideologies he/she likes and dislikes these ideologies create feelings among the individual. Negative attitude slows down the speed of learning and positive attitude speeds up learning process. Teachers must be cognizant of these attitudes and over all employ strategies that encourages positive attitude. Teacher can create love for education, hope, good ideas and development by changing the behaviour of the learner.
Feelings: feelings are the physical sensation we experience in our body and emotions are the labels we give those sensations in our minds. Love, fear and anger are supposed to be the basic feelings. Feeling is a power which leads a person to its successful destination. Negative behaviour of parents, teachers and peers, improper environment, inferiority complex, failure in some tasks also affects the learning process. Teachers should promote positive feelings and emotions. He has to eradicate the feelings of fear and anger from the minds.
Frustration: The feeling of being upset or annoyed, especially because of inability to change or achieve something is called frustration. Frustration is caused by a lack of control over a situation. The best way to handle frustration is to back away from the problem, take a breath, and then approach the problem calmly and rationally.
Aptitude: Aptitude is the potential in the learner, which has as yet not been tapped and trained to a skill level. A learner, who possesses appropriate aptitude for a particular subject of study or skill, will learn better and retain it for a longer time.
Individual Differences: Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Teachers need to help learners examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. As teachers/trainers, we must be aware of about learner's individual differences.
Laws of learning & Theories of learning
Every individual is born with certain unique instincts and learning depends on the satisfaction of these instincts. Individual learner’s capacity to learn varies from person to person. In this context, an Instructor must know the learner’s attitude towards learning and apply the knowledge of psychology of learning and human behaviour influences in all the phases of training.
E.L. Thorndike formulated three laws of learning on the early 20th century. The Law of readiness, the law of exercise and the Law of effect. These laws are universally accepted and applied to all kinds of learning. Later on, educational psychologists and pedagogies have discovered, tested some more secondary laws of learning applicable to the learning process and used in practical situations.
We must understand these principles of learning brought out as a result of services of experiments and research. The Instructor should make use of them in training the learners (trainees) in order to maximize their efforts to achieve the goal. In teaching-learning activities the Instructor and the trainees function in cooperation with each other and the goal is achieved adopting/following the laws of learning listed below:
The Law of Readiness
A trainee who is unwilling cannot be made to learn. In fact, a ground should be set for acquiring skill or knowledge. The instructor should create an environment that is conducive for making a trainee acquire new skill or knowledge. The trainer must make trainees mentally alert and this alertness can be utilized for creating interest and thus readiness.
The Law of exercise (frequency)
When a particular action is performed repeatedly it becomes a part of the habit. Hence an instructor must be careful in avoiding practice of wrong thing, for otherwise the wrong things get rooted and it is difficult to remove it later. This is also called as the Law of use or newness.
If something is left after learning, it is forgotten. Unless an attempt is made to re-learn it, there is no use. This is called the Law of disuse. Both these laws prove that practice must be continued and repeated exercises must be given to learn and perfect the skills already learnt. Thus, intensity of exercise and their repetition makes one to retain longer, knowledge and skills.
The Law of Effect
This is also known as the law of satisfaction and dissatisfaction or Law of pleasure and pain. Any learning that gives satisfaction or pleasure is easily learnt, while the one that gives trouble or pain is not learnt. We have all experienced that once a child burns his fingers in a fire, he is very much afraid to go near to it again.
The Law of Purpose
We are not learning everything that are new or that are useful. We also learn only what is going to be of immediate use to us or what is essential or purposeful. We have keen desire to learn things, which are useful later in life.
The Law of Association
Learning provides new knowledge and skill. We normally learn simple things easier and complex matters are little difficult and so it takes more time. We also learn better about what is known earlier than entirely new knowledge of skill.
The Law of Multiple Learning
Learning cannot be confined to one area. While one is learning a particular lesson he/she also acquires various habits and attitudes that are necessary for meeting the demand of life in general. Discipline, care and maintenance of tools, safeguarding equipment, safety precautions, prevention of misuse of materials and tools, cooperation with others are all other virtues and achievements that are attained along the way.
The Law of Maturity
Learning takes place according to the physical ability of the trainees. An important aspect of skill is to assist the learner to acquire differential control over the body. While one is engaged in skill acquisition, it is better to wait until he is mature enough to learn an act readily, before we attempt to instruct. With enough maturity, he will be able to learn with less time and effort and can enjoy the learning process much more.
The Law of Recency
Recently remembered materials are remembered well and reproduced more correctly than remotely learnt thing. But revision has done just half an hour before an examination cannot be recalled well. Perhaps the portions revised the night before can be reproduced better. This emphasizes the need for a thorough revision of portions learnt on the eve of examination if it has to be purposeful.
The Law of Assimilation
Only learning that are assimilated well are retained and reproduced. Not all learning are assimilated, retained and recalled. What is assimilated, retained and reproduced becomes part of learning.
The Law of Active participation
Only when all sensory organs are involved, ensuring better sensation and perception, we say there is active participation. The use of multi-sensory educational aids and technique in learning processes and active participation enhanced learning capabilities.
Theories of learning
Learning theories are conceptual framework that describes and guides how the learners absorb, process and retain knowledge during learning.
Psychologists, educationists and physiologists have contributed a lot for the comprehension of the learning experiences which is a complex and complicated process. Results based on the experiments they have contributed to the development of theories of learning. Some of the important learning theories applied in educational and vocational training are as follows:
1. Classical conditioning theory (Pavlov)
2. Trial and Error theory (Thorndike)
3. Insight theory (Kohler)
4. Operant conditioning theory (Reinforcement theory) (Skinner)
5. Theory of Imitation (Bendura) and so on.
Classical conditioning theory
PAVLOV - Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (September 1849 - February 1936) Famous Russian physiologist. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904. Pavlov studied physiology at Leipzig University in Germany for five years.
Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning states that stimulus and response are inter-related while learning process takes place.
Benefits:
Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning remains one of the most important in psychology's history, the conditioning process remains important today for numerous applications, including behavioral modification. Classical conditioning is often used to treat phobias, anxiety and panic disorders also.
Trial and Error theory - Edward Lee Thorndike (August 1874 - August 1949)
Thorndike - an American psychologist, his work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism (a set of approaches in the fields of artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology, helped to lay the scientific foundation for modern educational psychology). He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He has been considered as father of modern educational psychology in US.
In his theory the learners set a goal and he tries to achieve it after making several trails. This theory is known as Thorndike theory or Trial and Error. He placed a cat in a cage and a plate of fish outside the cage. The door arrangement of the cage was such a way that- by stepping on the slot the door opens. The cat tried several times to step on the slot but was not succeeded. Accidentally in one of its attempts stepped on the slot and the door was opened, cat ate the fish. In a similar occasion the cat opened the door easily by stepping on the slot. Similarly, we can also learn through trial-and-error methods.
Thorndike looked at how Cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes.
Experiment outcome:
• Thorndike's instruments learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took, for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box.
• If the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period.
• So it was trial-and-error
• These led Thorndike to formulate first his Principles of Learning and then his Theory of Learning that became the foundation of modern educational psychology.
Insight Learning Theory - Kohler Wolfgang Kohler
(January 1887 - June 1967)
Kohler was one of the founders of Gestalt psychology along with Max Werheimer and Kurt Koffka. He is also famous for his description of insight learning which he tested on animals, particularly chimpanzees. The results of his experiments during the period 1913-1917 were published in German.
When we solve a problem completely, we experience a pleasant feeling called by Kohler the - "AHA Experience". We say as, we suddenly see the answer to the problem. To illustrate the insight learning, observe the following series of numbers. Which number should follow the sequence- 1491625?. If you cannot solve the problem then come back to the problem. Try different arrangement or perceptual organization of the numbers. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... or odd numbers or even numbers or 12, 22, 32, etc. If you solve the problem you will have a pleasant experience that is AHA Experience!. Note that your solution came suddenly after some time, which you tried, various strategies. Perceptual arrangements helped a great deal. The solution ones you have it can be generalized rather easily or other similar number of problems.
Characteristics of insight learning
Insight Learning Theory Experiment:
How insight learning occurs? The cognitive answer to the question is the insight involves a perceptual re-organization of elements in the environment. Kohler worked out a number of insight experiments on chimpanzees and summarized the findings.
Two hollow bamboo sticks, one long and the other short, were kept inside the cage. Since the sticks were hollow, one stick could be pushed into one end of the other to form a longer stick. However, if the two sticks are joined, banana could be reached. First he tried with a short stick to pull the bananas, he failed. After fidding with the stick for sometime he realized that the stick was too short to pull the bananas, the longer one would solve the problem without fidding. He tired with longer stick, through which he got the banana and ate it. The learner acts according to the situation and achieves success and in a similar situation next time they acts without any problem because of his past experience.
Operant conditioning theory B.F Skinner (Mar 1904-Aug 1990)
An Americal psychologist behaviourist, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. Skinner (1948) is regarded as the father of operant conditioning, but his work has based on Thorndike (1898) Law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term Reinforcement. That is, behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die-out or be extinguished. (i.e. weakened).
Skinner identified three types of responses or operants that can follow behaviour...
• Neutral operants
• Reinforces
• Punishers
Positive reinforcement
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in the above box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behaviour. In fact Skinner even taught the rate by subjecting them in the box with an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. The rats soon learnt to press the lever when the light came on because they know that this would stop the electric current being switched ON.
Punishment
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. Punished behaviour creates fear and does not necessarily guide towards desired behaviour - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.
Theory of Imitation
Albert Bondura - Canadian - Americal psychologist, professor at Standfort University - His social learning theroy poists that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses the attention, memory and motivation.
Theory
We all try to imitate. Children try to imitate action of their elders. Imitation is learnt from school, institute, home and outside environment. Imitation is considered to be one of the natural qualities of human being. From elders/adults imitate like their precedents. Imitation is very useful in attaining skill. The imitation can be effected consciously or unconsciously. Sometime, complex and tough actions either new or difficult to imitate also reduces this specific skill. Imitation helps backward learners. It has some disadvantages some times bad qualities are also learnt through imitation. It is the responsibility of the instructor to guide the learner properly to avoid imitating wrong methods and means instrument or agency to learn a skill or attitude. Many teachers and parents today realize the importance of modelling acceptable behaviour.
Senses are avenues of Learning
Human have five basic senses. These sensing organs associated with each sence and information to begin to help us understand and perceive the world around us.
Sensory learning is concerned with perception and sense. Sense organs are generally called the “Gates of knowledge”. A particular type of knowledge is acquired through a particular sense organ. With the associations and reaction to the environment, sense organs grow conscious. They are:
• Sense of sight (Visual sensation) is through eyes. Colour, similarity, dissimilarity, reading and for all visual stimuli we use with eyes.
• Sense of hearing (Auditory sensation) is through ears. Sounds of different nature - teacher’s talk, discussions, sounds made by machines and materials or any other voice or sound reaches the ears as a stimuli eliciting responses.
• Sense of small (Factory sensation) is through the nose. We can identify different oils, burning of rubber insulation or a coil immediately through the smell, as and when proper response occurs.
• Sense of taste (Gustatory sensation) is through tongue. We use the tongue to know taste and through the taste we find difference between sweet, salt, tea, coffee, cheese, butter etc. In the food processing or catering field, this sense is much in use.
• Sense of touch (Tactual sensation) is through links or parts of body. Touching enables one to find out smoothness, softness, hardness and roughness of different degrees. By proper utilization of this sensation even blind men develop strong stimuli to other responses involving other organs.
Kin aesthesis (Muscular sense). We perceive through muscular feel when pressing, pulling, pushing, holding, balancing etc.
All the six senses play important part in acquisition of motor skills and knowledge and they are known as avenues of learning. A good instructor exploits as many senses as possible and each of the sense responds only to its own type of stimuli.
Individual Differences
All the trainers/learners do not have alike, the difference may be physical, mental and psychological.
• Physiological differences: Fatness, leanness, darkness, fairness, tallness, shortness of stature are various physical differences. Some of these have adverse effect on the motor learning.
• Mental differences: Intelligence, foolishness, mental backwardness is due to the traits of people, differs from one another.
• Psychological differences: Some are liberal while others are not. Some have certain special traits to learn certain subject or doing certain jobs. Some learn quickly while others slowly.
Causes of individual differences
• Heredity: Genes are responsible for individual differences. Parents play an important role in the individual differences.
• Environment: Environment has various features - Physical and social. Social environment play a more important part in creating individual differences.
• Age: Age is another factor to be reckoned in this. Physical psychological and emotional development is caused by the growth in age.
• Intelligence: Some have higher I.Q. Some are mentally backward and retarded while some are exceptionally intelligent.
• Economic condition: Economic condition of parents does causes individual differences.
Motivation in teaching & learning process
The terms ‘motivation’ is derived from the word “motive” which may be defined as needs wants, drives or impulses within an individual.
Motivation is the hidden force within us which impels us to behave in a particular way. The inducement to the people to contribute as effectively and as efficiently as possible is called motivation.
Human motives are based on needs, desire, wishes, drives, interests' inclination, purpose etc. Thus, motivation is an act of energizing and activating the people to satisfy their needs.
Motivation is the important factor in the learning process. It is important for an instructor to know the general principles of motivation.
In the field of teaching and training two fundamentally different types of motives may be distinguished.
“Intrinsic” motives drive for knowledge and activity without the consideration of the result or consequence.
“Extrinsic” motives which are directed towards the achievement of goal such as learning a skill in order to earn money.
Trainer have a tendency to value intrinsic motivation more highly than extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation, however, cannot be fully neglected and should not be looked separately.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement plays an important role in influencing the learning process. Reinforcement occurs when the learner can see that his efforts have led to success. A person who has such a pleasant experience of success will quite understandably have a tendency to repeat the activity again and again. In this way successful learning can lead to a continually renewed willingness to learn. A person whose efforts have met with failure for long enough and frequently enough will have an expectation of failure before every new learning situation. This negative reinforcement acts as a barrier to learning.
Behaviour modification
The behaviour modification techniques that a teacher or instructor can adopt includes.
• Extinction: Ignoring failures to reinforce “undesirable forms of behavior or mistakes” by not noticing them.
• Counter conditioning: “Undesirable form of behavior or mistakes” leads to an unpleasant experience for the learner. (Punishment, scolding, reprimands, marking mistakes with thick red pencils / pen, condemnation etc.)
• Learning by imitation: The teacher or instructor is himself a model or provides a behavioural model in some other way.
Motivational function of the trainer / instructor
From the available theory and data of the educational psychology, the teacher should perform four functions to motivate the learners. These are:
Arousal function
It is to arouse and maintain learner’s interest. It involves the initial responsibility of winning the learner’s attention (readiness to receive the lesson) and the continuing responsibility of regulating the level of arousal to avoid both sleep and emotional eruption. To meet this, the trainer should make the lesson interesting to the learners by bringing them within the learner’s intellectual range and helping them to understand that it is worth and valuable. Changing the position, tone of voice, mood of the trainer, teaching valuable from one technique to another etc. all the lead to increased motivation of learner.
Expectance function
It is to maintain or modify the learner’s expectation of success or failure in reaching the instructional objectives. It requires the trainer to describe concretely for learners what they will be able to do after the lesson.
Incentive function
It is to encourage learner in his further effort in the pursuit of instructional objectives. Feedback of test results, spoken or written praise or blame, grading, competition and co-operation are some of the established methods as successful incentives for learners which increase learner’s vigour in learning. However, care must be taken that these incentives do not come as discouragement to other groups of learners.
Disciplinary function
It is to control the deviant behavior of the learners through the use of reward and punishment. A punishment procedure which involves both the suppression of undesired response (or behaviour) and the provision of an alternative reward for desired response (or behaviour) may be a most effective procedure. This artful combination of punishment and reward as a disciplinary technique is called “restitution”. This technique should be adopted by the trainer in a non-threatening manner.
Techniques of motivation
In order to create effective motivation, the trainer or instructor should avoid the precipitous path of negative reinforcement. In general attention should be paid to the consistent use of reinforcement to promote positive types of behaviour and achievement through encouragement. In appropriate behaviours and errors should be largely ignored. In addition, the following steps may be taken to create effective motivation:
• Unambiguous objectives and a clear view of the subject as a whole the learner’s motivation is increased.
• Connection with the learner’s own interests and elucidation of ways in which the results of his learning can be put to practical use.
• Setting of tasks with a moderate degree of difficulty and a flexible range of difficulty. This results in a challenge to make an effort as well as the experience of success in learning.
• Interesting and challenging formulation of questions:
a. Creating surprise
b. Producing uncertainty
c. Raising objectives
d. Provoking learners by taking an extreme point of view
e. Arousing doubts, setting conflicting requirements
• Stimulation of independent learning by extending the periods of independent activity during learning process. Appropriate methods include group discussion, individual and group work, projects, role- playing etc.
• Feedback concerning learning success which encourages positive reinforcement of learning.
Learning starts with what learner knows, and not what the instructor / teacher knows or starts.
“Learning is change in behavior.”
What learning means
Learning is a process by which an individual acquires various habits, knowledge, skill and attitude that are required for meeting certain objectives. Learning changes the behaviour of individuals.
Learning situation
Learning situation that provides necessary atmosphere required for the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and skills. If any one of these is not satisfactory it affects the effective learning. The learning situation provides opportunity for learning. The learning situation determines the quality and speed of is to provide good learning situation to the learner.
Needs of learner
Learning can take place in response felt needs of the learner. When the learner knows the needs of learning, the learning will be more effective. The instructor should display their needs, then only can make them to start learning.
Learning materials (content)
It is the content to be learnt by the learner. It should be according to the mental level of the trainees. The content should be presented in a language that could be understood by the learner. If the content is in their own mother tongue / Regional language the learning will be more effective.
The learning methods
Comprehensive (understanding) learning is better that cursory (Hasty) learning. Whole learning is better than part learning. Self evaluation, periodical revision, repetition of learning and altering modes (manner) of learning are much important. Learning by trial and error needs good amount of energy. The method of learning is also depends on the age maturity.
Rediness of learn
For learning rediness is the most important factor. Learning is based in physical, social, intellectual and emotional growth. It is very important that the learner rediness should be ascertained before starting learning process. The instructor should know the maturity back ground of the learners for certain kind of learnings. In mass education teaching, this is not possible to achieve rediness of all trainees as such some may be ready and some may not be and this kind of individual differences cannot be avoided.
Method of instruction
The instructional methods affects the learning process. If the instructional method is not related to the requirements of learner, the learning will be ineffective. The method of instruction should be in cognizance (knowledgeable) to the instructional objectives. The method of teaching should not be mechanical. The active participation of the trainees in the teaching, accelerates the absorption of what trainees learnt. For effective and faster learning teaching and training aids may be used. The training aids help the learner to retain better, what the trainees learnt. Remedial instructions helps the backward trainers.
Learning by interaction
When a learner feels the needs of the objectives to learn and to achieve the goal they set for themself, learns by interacting in the learning situation. The process of responding to the situation and feels satisfaction for what they have learnt.
Environment
Physical, residential and social environment is very important. It is necessary for instructor and the institute administration to develop and create healthy and congenial environment which can bring about good qualities and character in the trainees. The environment helps the trainees in future in their life to become good craftsman and better citizens.
Psychological factors
Learning is a process involving communication between the trainee and instructor. Psychological factor helps for improving self-expression, self ascertain and satisfaction. Personality requirements are quite important for efficient learning. Discipline, attitude of instructor, ability of administrators and involvement of all these connected are equally important for providing better learning conditions.
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